《中国人的性格》第二十四章 相互猜疑

《中国人的性格》是美国传教士阿瑟·史密斯（明恩溥）基于1872年赴华传教期间的社会观察撰写的著作，首版英文名《Chinese Characteristics》于19世纪末问世，。作者在华生活逾五十年，书中融合人类学视角与传教士立场，记录了晚清民众的性格特征与文化形态。

全书以27个主题章节剖析中国人行为模式，包含“保全面子”“省吃俭用”等生活哲学，以及“漠视精确”“因循守旧”等社会现象。通过对比西方工业文明，着重探讨东方特有的生存韧性，如环境适应力与疼痛耐受性。书中案例多源自山东乡村生活经历，涉及衣食住行、孝悌观念等主题，部分结论因宗教立场存在视角争议。该著作开创西方研究中国国民性先河，被译成多国文字，成为近代中西文化互鉴的重要文本。

第二十四章 相互猜疑

没有一定的互相信赖，人就不能在有组织的社会中生存，这是个勿容置疑的事实。对中国这样一个组织高度严密、复杂的社会，更是如此。尽管人们都承认这一点，仍有一些现象需要注意。这些现象并不符合我们的观念，可对于了解中国的人来说，却是十足的事实。我们所要讨论的主题是中国人的相互猜疑，这一性格特征其实并无特别之处，所有的东方民族都具备。不过，中国的天才们无疑大大地改变了它的表现形式。知道一些与己无关、但可能引起严重后果的事，就会十分危险，它会引起极大猜疑。中国人如此，其他民族也不例外。

相互猜疑，在中国经久不衰。最引人注意的是帝国各地的城中均围着高墙。汉语中，“城”一词本身就包含着被墙所围的意思，就像拉丁语中的“军队”一词也有训练、锻炼的意思一样。帝国的律法规定每个城市必须用一定高度的墙围起来，不过，它和许多其他法令相同，没有形诸文字，坚决要求实施，因为有很多城墙没有任何保护设施，任其颓毁。在太平天国起义中，有一个城市曾被起义者攻破，并被占据了好几个月，尽管城墙没有被全部摧毁，可从那以后，十几年都没重修，还有许多城墙不过是薄薄的一层泥墙，连狗都可以任意爬进爬出。所有这些颓败的现象只反映了帝国的贫困，一旦有危险警报出现，首先就是修城墙。而修城又成了官吏或暴发户掠夺的最便捷的途径。

中国之所以有那么多城墙，是因为政府不信任百姓。尽管从理论上说，皇帝是百姓的父亲，他的臣僚也被称为“父母官”，但所有的人都清楚，那只不过是一种说法而已，就像说“加”或“减”一样，百姓与统治者之间真正的关系是孩子与继父间的关系。整个中国历史充满了起义，如果中央政府及时采取适当行动，大多数起义显然可以避免。可是，政府并不想及时采取行动，也可能是它不希望这样做，或者有某些原因使它不能这样做。起义正在悄悄地准备着，政府也知道，可官员们只是像乌龟一样地把头缩进壳里，或者像刺猬一样团成球，立刻躲进现成的防御城堡中，把动乱留给军队去收拾。

与其他东方城镇一样，中国居民住处周围也建有高墙，这是他们相互猜疑的另一表现。外国人对中国人谈起伦敦、纽约这类城市，若故意说这些城市是“有围墙的城市”，会感到十分为难。使一个可能对西方感兴趣的中国人理解，西方人的住处周围没有任何防护设施，也并不容易。中国人会立刻认为，那些国家没有多少坏人，尽管他没有什么根据。

在中国农村，人们一般拥挤地住在一处，这也可以说明中国人相互猜疑。这些农村实际上是微型城市，它防御的不是外来敌人，而是彼此防御。据我们了解，只有一些山区例外。那些地区土地贫瘠，养不了几户人家。他们又实在太贫穷，根本不用怕贼。巴伯先生描绘了四川的情况：“地主和佃户各自住在自己的田舍里，他们宁愿分开住，而不愿将住处挤在一起。”如果这个例外是因为古老的四川比其他省更期望和平，那么，它就恰恰证实了巴伯先生所说的：这种期望已经历了太多痛苦的失望，特别是太平天国那段日子，尽管在此之前曾有过很长一段和平时期。巴伦·梵·瑞恰斯芬也很赞成巴伯先生的观点。

中国人，包括其他东方人，在观念上和实践中对待妇女的态度，也是他们相互猜疑的最重要的表现。其观念已经人人尽知，就是花上一整章也讨论不清其中的一点。女孩子一到青春期，就变得像“私盐”一样危险。订婚之后，就更加不能外出见人了。极细小、单纯的事都会招来恶毒的流言蜚语。“寡妇门前是非多”，也是公认的社会真理。尽管中国妇女比印度、土耳其的妇女享有更大的自由，*但仍不能认为中国妇女能获得较高的尊重。妇女普遍遭到歧视，处于从属地位；一夫多妻制和纳妾制也一直存在——这些都表现出对妇女的不尊重，可是在西方，尊重妇女是再平常不过的事。中国表达对妇女看法的俗语也许被视为长期经验的总结，随处都可以听到。女人被说成是天生下贱、目光短浅、不可信赖的货色，还被当成嫉妒的化身，人们常说：“妒莫过于妇人。”这里的“妒”想传达的意思，是和它读音相同的一个字：“毒”，这种观念，有诗为证：

竹林蛇口

赤蜂尾上

狠毒莫若

妇人心肠

另外，歧视妇女的观念还渗透在文字中。作为客观的表现形式，它经常引起人们的注意。一位杰出的中国学者，为了回答笔者的问题，仔细研究了一百三十五个以“女”字为偏旁的常用字。结果发现，其中十四个为褒义，如“好”、“娴”等；其余三十五个为贬义，八十六个为中性。那些贬义字囊括了汉语中最恶毒无耻的意义，如虚伪、欺诈、堕落、不忠、自私之类。三个“女”字组成的

*可这种自由不能以表面现象来判断。一位在印度德里居住了若干年的妇女，来到山西省首府定居，她评判说，通常中国街道上的妇女人数要少于印度。不过，事实与这段注释并不矛盾。

奸字，表达了“与未婚者私通、通奸、诱奸”等等意思。

据说，不信任别人有两个原因：一是不了解对方；二是了解对方。原因不同，中国人的处理方式也不同。中国人天生具有联合的本领，如同化学原子化合一样。他们彼此不信任是以含蓄的方式表达的，只要在恰当的时间，以恰当的方式，我们就很容易发现这一点。媳妇煽起家庭成员之间的不断猜疑，为了分配共同的劳动成果，她们总是使出浑身解数，挑拨丈夫与家庭间的关系。

不讨论家庭生活了，它可以写上整整一章。现在让我们看看没有复杂家庭关系的人。家里的仆人，假如不是由某位富有责任心的人介绍来的，彼此之间总是保持武装中立。可假如其中一位有劣迹传出来，他首先不是问自己：“主人是怎么发现的？”而是问：“谁告诉他的？”即使他心里清楚，有很多证据可以证明是他干的，他的第一个念头仍是别的仆人在排挤他。我们认识一位中国妇女，有次她听到院子里有人高声谈话，脸色就马上变了，怒气冲冲地从屋子里奔出去，她认为，人们是在愤怒地议论她。可事实上，只是有人在买一堆谷草，嫌卖主要价太高。

某个仆人被意外辞退，他肯定会满腔仇恨，这也是由猜疑引起的。他怀疑除他自己之外的每一个人，即使他知道所有的理由中，任何一条都足以使他被辞退，他仍会坚持有人说了他的坏话，坚持说辞退他是毫无道理的。他必须挽回“面子”，他猜疑的天性必须满足，外国家庭的仆人也会发生这类事，不过程度不同，因为中国仆人知道如何欺骗善良的外国人。但在中国主人那里，他想都不敢这样想。因此，很多外国人一直雇用着早该辞退的仆人，他们不敢那样做。他们也知道，单单提出辞退就会招怨树敌，其中主要是那些受过指责、“不光彩”的仆人。外国人没有勇气将他们赶走，以免失败后，情况更糟。

有一个故事，讲的是中世纪奥地利的一座城市遭到了土耳其人的围攻，眼看城池就要被攻破了。在这危急关头，一位姑娘突然想起了自己的很多箱蜜蜂，就把它们搬到城墙上。这时土耳其人已快爬到城垛子上了。群蜂飞出，敌人潮水般地退却了，城市被挽救了。中国人的策略常常和这个奥地利姑娘一样，成功对于他们仅是一种标志，一位拉丁教授说过，人们宁愿“面对风暴的警报”，也不“面对风暴自身”，中国人对待骚乱也如同对待风暴一样。虽然中国人说：“用人不疑，疑人不用”，可经常只是睁一只眼，闭一只眼，假装没看见，而对于外国人来说，可没那么简单，容易处理。

孩子到了独立闯世界的年龄，我们认为有必要告诉他们：最好不要过分相信陌生人。中国的孩子不需要如此告诫，他们早已从母奶里汲取了这一经验。有句俗话说：一人不进庙，两人不看井。我们感到迷惑不解，为什么一个人不能进庙呢？原来是和尚可能会乘机谋财害命。两人不看井，因为假如一个人欠了另一个人的债，或另一个人身上有他渴望得到的东西，他也许会趁机把这个人推入井中。

另外一些相互猜疑的例子来自人们的日常生活。在西方国家，有自由，无压抑，而中国明显缺乏自由。在我们看来，处理一件事情，理所当然应该采用最简便的方法，可在中国完全不同，需要考虑很多因素。无论遇到什么事，中国人考虑最多的是两种东西——钱和粮，它们是大部分中国人生活的两个核心。中国人很难相信，一笔钱若交到另外一个人手里，能够按既定的方案分配给众人。他们没有那种分配经验，只认为，钱到了另外一个人手里，他就会千方百计地从中克扣。同样，安排一个中国人为他人分配食物也很困难。表面上，怎么也看不出接受食物者会怀疑分配者从中克扣。此时，不满的情绪可能被完全压抑了。但我们不能据此认为，没有猜疑存在。其实，只有外国人才把它当成一个问题，中国人认为，只要机器中存在摩擦，人与人之间就存在猜疑。

中国旅馆的侍者有个习惯，他们总对即将离开的旅客大声报出清单上的每一款项。这可不像一些旅客所认为的，是在称赞他的阔气，它有更实际的目的，是为了使其他侍者知道，报单的人并没有私藏小费或“酒钱”，尽管实际上他们个个盼望能够这样。

假如一件事接近完成时，需要重新磋商或修正，中国人就不能像西方人，一封信就可以把事情办妥。当事人要亲自到负责人家里去。如果时间太晚，负责人不在，还必须再次登门，直到见到为止。假如通过中介，谁都不敢保证事情不被歪曲。

人们经常讨论中国人的团结。有些时候，整个家庭或家族会干预属于家庭成员个人的事。一个明智的外姓人。这时会格外小心，以免介入，惹火烧身。有句很妙的格言说的就是外姓人的忠言难以被接受。“我们的事情，这家伙搀和什么？一定是居心不良！”对朋友和老邻居都如此，更何况外来户和没有特殊关系的人。

“外”这个词在中国还有远近之分。外国人办事不顺利，因为他来自“外国”；乡民办事不顺利，因为他来自“外乡”。一个外来者，背景不明，又不想让别人知道，情况一会更糟糕。谨慎的中国人免不了会想：“谁知道这家伙葫芦里装的是什么药？”

一个旅行者碰巧迷路，来到了一个村庄。假如天黑了，尤其时间太晚，他会经常发现，没人出来给他指路。笔者有一次就曾来来回回转了几个小时，花钱也雇不到向导，甚至听不到一句指路的话。

中国学生上课时一律扯着嗓子念，既损害他们的发声器官，也令外国人心烦意乱。这是一种“传统”，如果想刨根究底，人们会告诉你，听不到读书声，老师就不知道学生是否在专心学习。学生背诵时，要背对老师，老师以这种奇怪的做法来确保学生不偷看。

并不是所有的文明都主张要款待陌生人。和东方人实际接触之后，所罗门关于对陌生人要谨慎的箴言获得了新意。但中国人的谨慎已到了高不可攀的地步。一位中国老师受雇于外国人，收集童谣。一次，他听到一个小男孩正在哼一支不清楚的歌谣，就让他再唱一遍，可是，孩子吓得慌忙逃走了，再也没露面。小男孩的行为是中国这种环境中典型的产物。一个人精神失常，离家出走，他的朋友四下里打听，希望能得到一点儿有关他的消息，其实，他们很清楚，这样做，希望是非常渺茫的。假如有人说曾见他来过，后来又走了。寻找的人会很自然地问他：你当时做了些什么？这样，麻烦就来了。所以，如果询问者是个陌生人，人们就一定会回答：不知道。这也是最安全的办法。

根据我们的经验，在中国，陌生人寻找当地一位有名的人物，也会出现类似的情况。有一次，一个看似来自邻省的人，到某个村子去找一位名人，最后却失望地发现，全村人众口一辞，都断然否定认识这么一个人，而且还信誓旦旦地表示，连听说都没听说过。这些谎言并不是事先串通好，编造出来的，因为村民们没有串通的时间，他们不约而同地这样做，就像北美的草原犬鼠，一见到陌生的东西，就一头扎进洞里，是出于一种本能。

在所有的这类事情中，一句简单的招呼，都可以显示出它与当地方言的细微差别。乡下人会经常遇到盘问，他家住在哪儿，距离某某地有多远等等，似乎在确保他不是在骗人。同样，学生入“闱”时，不仅要询问他的学历。还可能要盘问他写的文章，以及是如何完成的。用这种方法，欺骗就很容易被识破，事实上也经常如此。一个人不要企图冒充当地人，因为口音会泄露他的籍贯。陌生人不仅很难获得某人的下落，而且他的行为还会引起普遍的猜疑，就像前面说的那个例子，整个村子都在猜疑。有几个中国人曾长期在一家外国医院接受治疗，笔者让另几个中国人去找他们，结果，一个也没找到。有时，即使一个人鼓起勇气和陌生人交谈，也至多只说出自己的姓，绝对不会泄露自己的名字，因为同姓的人毕竟很多。还有时，送信者苦苦寻找的村子就在眼前，却会莫名其妙地找不到，甚至连最后的一点线索也消失了。就在前面说的那个例子中，陌生人在方圆一、两里路内都没有找到的那位名人，其住处实际上距他只有几十米远。

笔者认识一位老人，他有一个富有的邻居。两人从前曾同是中国某一秘密教派的成员。可当人们询问起他邻居的情况时，却发现这两个从小一起长大，相邻而居六十余年的老人从未接触过。“怎么会这样呢？”“因为他老了，很少外出。”“你为什么不常去看望他，谈谈过去的时光呢？你们相处得不好吗？”老人不自然地微微一笑，然后摇摇头：“不，我们相处得很好。但他富有，我贫穷，如果我去他家，就会惹人说闲话：他去那儿干什么？”

中国人相互猜疑有一个明显的表现：他们从内心里不愿被单独留在房间里。否则，一定会觉得不自在，还可能会溜出房间，到走廊里去，似乎在说：“别怀疑我，瞧，我没拿你的任何东西，我不在屋子里。”自重的中国人拜访外国人时也会这样。

没有什么能比非正常性死亡更易引起强烈的猜疑。典型的例子是已婚女儿的死亡。虽然，像前面说的，女儿活着时，父母无力保护她；可假如她死得可疑，她的父母在一定程度上就获得了主动权。女儿自杀后，他们就不再像过去那样俯首屈从，而是盛气凌人地提出一些苛刻的条件。这种情况下，拒绝和女方娘家达成一致，就会引起一场持久、恼人的官司。娘家的目的首先是为了报复，不过，最终目的只是为了保住“面子”。

中国有句古话：瓜田不纳履，李下不整冠。这句箴言表达了一个普遍的真理：在中国，走路都要小心翼翼。这就是中国人生性沉默的原因，我们对此有时十分难以忍受。他们都知道，一言不慎，就可能酿成大祸，而我们对此一点也不懂。

中国人的商业活动表明中国有各种各样的猜疑形式。买方、卖方彼此都不信任，只有严格保持中立的第三者才能促使买卖成交，他们只有通过讨价还价才能获利。而且直到付款，交易才算做成。情况更复杂时，还需要形诸文字，因为“空口无凭”，必须“立此存照”。

中国金融市场的混乱，部分原因在于钱庄对顾客有根深蒂固的不信任，顾客也有充分的理由表明自己不应该相信钱庄。南方的假外币，各地的假银元，都是这个伟大的商业性民族生性猜疑的明证。他们决心做成一桩交易时，非常精明；不愿做时，表现得更精明。顾客出于猜疑，总希望天黑以后使用银子，这一点中外皆然。如果城里的商店建议等到第二天，这是明智之举，也不足为奇。

中国的银行系统似乎包罗万象，错综复杂。我们从马可·波罗的游记中可以知道，中国很早就使用银行票据了。但并不普遍，好像被严格地限制在一定的流通领域。两个相距仅十里的城市，各自的钱庄都有充足的理由不收对方的票据。

中国的利润率很高，在24%一36%之间，甚至更高，这也是中国人彼此不信任的表现。这种暴利大部分不是钱本身的利润，而是巨大冒险的保险费，我们所熟悉的西方的投资方式，他们几乎没有，这不是因为帝国资源开发不足，而是因为人们普遍彼此不信任，“人生无信不立”，根据这一点，在将来的很长一段时间内，在许多问题上，中国人仍将表现出猜疑的特点，这必定会极大地损害他们的利益。

几年前，有家报纸对纽约华人的情况作过详细的报道，其中有个荒谬的例子可以说明中国商业场中的猜疑。中国人在其他城市建立的机构大概也是大同小异。在纽约，他们有自已的市政府，有十二个中政领导。这些人把钱和中政府的文件锁在一个大保险柜中，为确保绝对安全，他们不用美国银行用的那种复杂、美观的号码锁，而是用十二把铜挂锁（中国式的）。每人只掌一把钥匙，要想打开保险柜，必须十二人全部到齐，每人开一把锁。不幸的是，一位杰出的高级中政官突然去世了，整个市政事务立刻陷入了极度混乱中，因为那位市政官的钥匙找不到了。即使找到，也没人敢代他开锁，人们相信死者会嫉妒他的继承人，让他也患上自己的那种病，这一迷信的观念太令他们恐惧了。直到经过特殊的选举补了空缺之后，市政府才取出钱支付丧葬费。这件小事，的确是一扇窗口，通过它，人们可以发现中国人的一些主要特征一一富有组织才能、商业才能，互相猜疑，极度的轻信以及对西方制度和文明不言而喻的蔑视。

中国的政府机构中也不乏相互猜疑的例子。宦官是亚洲典型的现象，中国古亦有之。但在目前的这个王朝，满族人采用了卓有成效的办法，使这批危险人物不再像过去那样有权力来危害人民了。

满人在中国是征服者，汉人是被征服者，双方在政府中难免相互猜疑，产生趄龋。六部长官及副职由哪族人来担任必须妥善安排，这样才能维持国家机器的平衡。检察院在很大程度上，也起到同等作用。

对那些熟悉中国政府内部情况的人，我们不能不承认他们说得对；中国人的普通社会生活中充满猜疑，官场也不例外。它不可能是另外一种情况，实际上乃中国人的本性使然。上级害怕下级竞争，时刻提防下级；下级的宦海浮沉又随时会受上级影响，他们也在猜疑上级。而整个官僚阶层又对强大的文人阶层和普通百姓存有戒备之意。中国有许多宗教团体是半政治性的，这就是后一种情况的显著表现。它们已使整个帝国变得像一团马蜂窝。地方政府禁止节欲者团体集会，比如有名的三星会，它只不过想禁止鸦片、烟和酒，打翻衙门里贪婪的“虎狼”的筵宴。他们并不企图谋反，可官府一直这样认为，他们也就只能如此。所有的秘密宗教都企图谋反，包括三星会，这样猜疑，会使事情变得容易处理。无论什么时候只要有异常情况，政府立即行动，把为首的抓住，或流放，或杀掉，恐惧就可缓解一阵子了。

强烈的猜疑使中国人变得十分保守。他们不了解人口调查，政府偶尔需要，也会因猜疑而不能实行，哪怕是名义上也不行，人们总是立刻怀疑调查是别有用心的。笔者邻村发生的一件事，可以证明这种猜疑真实不虚。有兄弟二人，听说政府要进行新的人口调查，便断定这是强行迁民的预兆。按常规，迁民时，兄弟二人会留一人在家看守祖坟。弟弟料想自己很可能被征走，为了逃避长途跋涉的折磨，他立刻自杀了。这样就将了政府一军。

猜疑与保守，使中国青年从美国留学归来后，一直步履维艰，困难重重。它们也同样阻碍了中国对铁路的引进。中国所需要的改革也因政府的猜疑而长期遭到禁止。三十多年前，一位著名的政治家，听了铸造小银币之重要性的意见时，非常坦率地说：帝国的货币，永不可改革，“如果试图改变，百姓立即会认为政府想从中牟利。”事实上，也的确如此。

开矿也同样不可避免地遇到了巨大的阻力。如果可以成功的话，它会使中国变成一个富庶的国家。地下的“泥龙”，地上的猜疑和侵吞公款的行为，使得整个行动连第一步都难以迈出。无论新事物会带来多大的益处，益处有多明显，只要引起猜疑，就别想引进。已故的内文斯博士在烟台，为了将外国水果的优良品种引进中国，做了大量的工作，这些水果明显会带来巨大的收益。但他每前进一步，都要被迫同猜疑作斗争。缺乏善心或稍不耐烦，就可能早已取消这项计划了。不过，效益一旦得到确证，猜疑就会自然地渐渐消失。调查养蚕和种茶对帝国的海关非常实际，可是对此感兴趣的人们又怎么能违背过去的经验，认为这些调查不是为了征税，而是为了促进生产或提高技术劳动的收益呢？谁听说过这种事情？即便听说了，谁又会相信呢？古老的荷兰有句谚语可以形容中国人对这类事的态度：“狐狸跳进鹅毛笔管时，却说：‘各位早晨好’。”

下面我们将探讨一下这个问题与外国人间的特殊关系。中国人在强烈地不信任外国人时，还经常伴随着一种根深蒂固的观念：他们能够轻而易举地完成最难办的事。假如一个外国人在某个他从前很少去的地方散步，中国人就会认为他在察看风水；假如他凝视一条河，他就是在测定其中是否有金子。人们认为他能够看穿地表，发现最值得攫取的东西。如果他在赈济灾荒，人们就会认为他最终是想掠走大批当地人，到外国去做苦力。出于“风水”上的考虑，外国人经常被禁止到城墙上去，他们的建筑物也必须严格控制，像帝国的边界线一样明确。中国人似乎缺乏自然一致性的观念。巴伯先生曾提起四川某山区的一句谚语：外长罂粟内藏煤。这并不仅仅是一种无知的观念。帕普利教授说，北京的一位高级官员也告诉过他同样的话，并且在不知开采速度的情况下，把它作为反对过快开采煤矿的根据。己故的政治家文祥，曾读马丁博士的《基督教的证明》一书，当有人问起他的看法时，他回答，他准备接受该书科学的部分，但宗教部分，关于地球绕着太阳旋转的断言，则会令他难以置信。

外国人进入中国完全超出了他们目前的承受能力。梵·瑞恰斯芬男爵骑马在乡间游历，在四川人看来，完全是一种漫无目的的行为，因此把他想像成一个亡命之徒。很多中国人第一次见到外国人，会产生一种神秘的恐惧感，后来才发现这些野蛮人原来也都挺不错。许多中国妇女受到告诫，她们一旦进入外国人的住所，外国人就会念动致命的咒语，使她们着魔。如果她们最终被引诱进去，她们千万不能踩门槛或照镜子，否则会不安全。

几年以前，从内地某省来的一位年轻学者——该省对外国人其实一无所知——经过笔者的努力，答应帮一位新来的外国人学汉语。他在那人家里住了几星期后，想起他的母亲需要他的照顾，就回家去了。临行前，与笔者约定，某日赶回，可是，直到现在他也没回来。住在外国人家里的那段日子，这个聪明的孔门弟子，从未喝过一口茶或吃过一样东西，唯恐吃进了迷魂药。有一次，他写信给他的母亲，告诉她，自己一切都很好。另一个老师就送给他个外国信封，并且还告诉他，只要用舌头舔湿就可以封口。他却急中生智，温和地请那位老师帮他封口，因为他对此不在行。

中国人拒绝接受外同人印刷的汉语书，也是由这种观念导致的。人们普遍相信，书中放了迷魂药，油墨味就是它发出来的。药是在排版印刷时就掺进去了。有时，还会听到读了外国人的书，就会成为外国人的奴隶的传闻，据说有个小伙子对此不太相信，就读了一本小册子的开头，马上惊恐地把书扔掉，跑回家告诉他的朋友，假如谁读了那个书后，说了谎言，将来就会下地狱。小贩子也经常发现，这些书送都送不出去，并不是因为书中不为人知的内容受到敌视，而是因为人们担心送书者会以此进行敲诈勒索，这种做法在中国相当普遍。

如果外国人不慎重，试图记下一些孩子的名字，就会引起一片恐慌，而且也确曾使一所正在兴办的学校解散了。中国文字的罗马拼音体系一开始引入，就遭到了怀疑与排斥。为什么外国人希望教学生写一些他们的朋友读不懂的文字？世界上任何解释都不能消除中国老一辈人的疑心，他们认为，汉字一直很完美，对下一代也有好处。外国人连自己的祖先都不知道是谁，和他们的发明相比，中国人的汉字不知要好多少倍。几乎可以说，外国人的一切建议都会受到普遍的排斥。其原因很明显，就因为是外国人的建议。这种“顺而不从”的性格使你的中国朋友，以最温和而又最明确无误的方式让你确信，你的建议非常令人敬佩，不过，也非常荒谬。

讽刺是西方人手中的一种便利的武器，可它完全不适合中国人的口味。外国人对待中国人决不是根据自己的愿望或需要。有个外国人对仆人的失职和过错深恶痛绝，就用英语骂他“骗子”。仆人就向一位汉语很好的女士请教，当他得知这个用来说他的词的意思时，说他“受到了沉重的打击”。清朝的高级官员曾盗用汤姆先生《伊索寓言》泽文的版本，他们的思维模式和这个仆人一模一样。不过，其中会说话的鹅、老虎、狐狸和狮子不能不令他们想到背后隐晦的含义，为防患于未然，他们便查禁了所有的版本。对外国人最顽固的不信任的例子可以在遍布大部分中国的医院和诊所里发现。在人数众多的患者中，许多人对外国医生的善良和医术表现出不言而喻的诚意和令人感动的信任。但也有不少人，仍相信荒谬的谎言，说外国人用人的眼睛和心脏做药，外科医生有将人切成碎肉的嗜好，外国人还将中国儿童藏在地窖中，进行可怕的处理等等。除了小心探问，这些人的感情我们一般了解得很少。一、两年之后，这些机构的广泛成功可望能够像大风吹散尘土一样，驱散所有的这些无稽之谈。不过，它们一有机会，就会疯狂地蔓延，像温暖潮湿八月中的霉菌。

虽然在中外关系史上，外国人存在着严重失误，但整个历史是中国人怀疑与搪塞的历史。这是一段令人厌倦的回忆，其间的教训完全是由徒劳无功的交往者造成的。但在中国，私人常常被迫充当外交家，他们都很清楚应该怎样做，我们可以举一个典型的例子进行说明。一个外国人提出要在中国内地某城市租赁一处住所，当地官员则提出种种借口加以搪塞，在一次安排好的会见中，这个外国人身着中国服装，带着纸和笔，到了见面地点。初步交谈之后，他慢慢地取出文具，摆好纸，拧开笔，检查一下墨水，神情严肃专注。中国官员怀着强烈的兴趣看他做完这一切，好奇地问：“你在做什么？”外国人解释道，他只是准备好文具，“仅此而已，没有什么。”“文具？准备文具干什么？”“记下你的答复。”这位官员急忙向外国客人保证，住所一定会解决，这样做完全没有必要。可他下次再听到这个神秘的记录时，怎么能保证承认，其中的内容都是他说的？

中国是个谣言泛滥的国家，它们经常使人心中充满恐惧。几年前，新加坡的中国人报告说，苦力们坚决拒绝天黑以后走某一条街道，因为在那里会突然神秘地被砍去脑袋。帝国可能永远也不能从恐惧中解脱出来了，对于有关的人，这些恐惧就像1789年法国革命中的巴黎人感到的一样真切。无节制的轻信和相互猜疑是恐怖的谣言产生、弥漫的沃土。当它们与外国人有关时，痛苦的经验表明，绝不可掉以轻心，在它们刚一产生时，就应该查清。如果当地官员认真查处，就不会导致严重的后果。如果不进行制止，任其漫延，就会产生像天津大屠杀那样的惨剧。整个中国都适宜于谣言的迅速传播，几乎没有一个省没有产生过谣言。为了彻底铲除谣言，时间就应像地质新纪元一样被视为至关重要的因素，最好的办法，是以勿容置疑的实例，使中国人相信，外国人是他们真诚的祝愿者，一旦树立了这一坚定信念，“四海之内皆兄弟”将会在人类史上第一次成为现实。

英文原版：

XXIV. MUTUAL SUSPICION

TT is an indisputable truth that without a certain amount of mutual confidence it is impossible for mankind to exist in an organised society,especially in a society so highly organised and so complex as that of China.Assuming this as an axiom, it is not the less necessary to direct our attention to a series of phenomena,which,however inharmonious they may appear with our theory,are sufficiently real to those who are acquainted with China.Much of what we shall have to say of the of the Chinese is by no means peculiar to this peo- ple;it is rather a trait which they share in common with all Orientals,the manifestations of which are doubtless much modified by the genius of Chinese institutions.The whole subject is intimately connected with that of mutual responsi- bility,already discussed.Nothing is more likely to excite the suspicion not of the Chinese only but of any human being, than the danger that he may be held to account for something which has no concern whatever with himself,but the conse- quences of which may be most serious.

The first manifestation which attracts a stianger's attention of the chronic suspicion prevailing in China is the existcnce in all parts of the Empire of lofty walls which enclose all cities. The fact that the word for city is in Chinese the equivalent for a walled city,is as significant as the fact that in the Latin language the word which denoted army also meant drill or practice.The laws of the Empire require that every city shall be enclosed by a wall of a specified height.Like other laws this statute is much neglected in the letter,for there are many cities the walls of which are allowed to crumble into such decay that they are no protection whatever,and we know of one district city invested by the T‘ai-p'ing rebels and occu- pied by them for many months,the walls of which,although utterly destroyed,were not restored at all for more than a decade afterwards. Many cities have only a feeble mud rampart,quite inadequate to keep out even the native dogs, which climb over it at will. But in all these cases the occa- sion of these lapses from the ideal state of thirgs is simply the poverty of the country.Whenever there is an alarm of trouble,the first step is to repair the walls.The execution of such repairs affords a convenient way in which to fine officials or others who have made themselves too rich in too short a time.

The firm foundation on which rest all the many city walls in China is the distrust which the government entertains of the people. However the Emperor may be in theory the father of his people,and his subordinates called"father and mother oficials,"all parties understand perfectly that these are purely, technical terms,like plus and minus,and that the real relation between the people and their rulers is that between children and a stepfather.The whole history of China appears to be dotted with rebellions,most of which might apparently have been prevented by proper action on the part of the general government if taken in time.The government does not ex- pect to act in time. Perhaps it does not wish to do so,or perhaps it is prevented from doing so. Meantime,the people slowly rise,as the government knew they would,and the offi- cials promptly retire within these ready-made fortifications, like a turtle into its shell or a hedgehog within its ball of quills,and the disturbance is left to the slow adjustment of the troops.

The lofty walls which enclose all premises in Chinese,as in other Oriental cities and towns,are another exemplification of the same traits of suspicion.If it is embarrassing for a foreigner to know how to speak to a Chinese of such places as London or New York,without unintentionally conveying the notion that they are“walled cities,”it is not less difficult to make Chinese who may be interested in Western lands understand how it can be that in those countries people often have about their premises no enclosures whatever.The im- mediate,although unwarranted,inference on the part of the Chinese is that in such countries there must be no bad char- acters of any kind.

The almost universal massing of the rural Chinese popula- tion in villages,which are in reality miniature cities,is another illustration of mutual suspicion.The object is protection,not from a foreign enemy,but from one another. The only excep- tions to this agglomeration of Chinese dwellings with which we are acquainted,is in the case of some mountainous regions where the land is so barren that it is incapable of supporting more than one or two families,the people being so poor that they have no dread of thieves,and the province of Szechuan, in which,as Mr.Baber mentions,"the farmer and his work- people live,it may be said,invariably in farm-houses on their land,and the tendency is to the separation rather than to the congregation of dwellings.”If this exception to the general rule was made because the expectation of peace in that re- mote province was thought to be greater than in others,as Baron von Richthofen suggested,it has proved,as Mr.Baber remarks,an expectation which has suffered many and grievous disappointments,especially—although after a long-previous peace-in the days of the T'ai-p'ing rebels.

A most significant illustration of the Chinese—and also Oriental—suspicion found in social life is to be seen in the theory and practice in regard to woman.What that theory is is sufficiently well known.An entire chapter would scarcely do justice to this brancn of the subject.As soon as they come to the age of puberty,girls are proverbially a commod- ity as“dangerous as smuggled salt.”When once they are betrothed they are kept far more secluded than before.The smallest and most innocent circumstance is sufficient to start vicious and malevolent gossip,and it is a social axiom that scandals cluster about a widow's door.While Chinese women have incomparably more liberty than their sisters in Turkey or in India,*Chinese respect for women cannot be rated as high. Universal ignorance on the part of women,universal subordination,the existence of polygamy and concubinage一 these are not good preparations for that respect for woman- hood which is one of the fairest characteristics of Western civilisation.It would be easy to cite popular expressions in illustration of the views which the Chinese hold of women in general,and which may be regarded as the generalisations of long experience.She is spoken of as if it were her nature to be mean,short-sighted,and not to be trusted—she is consid- ered to be an incarnation of jealousy,as in the phrase,"it is impossible to be more jealous than a woman,"where the word "jealous"suggests,and is intended to suggest,another word with the same sound,but meaning“poisonous.”This theory is well embodied in a verse of ancient Chinese poetry,of which the following lines are a translation:

" The serpent's mouth in the green bamboo,

The yellow hornet's caudal dart;

Little the injury these can do;

More venomous far is a woman's heart."

*The existence of this liberty,is not,however,to be judged of by superficial indications.A lady who resided for some years in the Indian city of Delhi,and subsequently at the capital of the province of Shansi, remarked that fewer Chinese women were ordinarily to be seen upon the streets of the latter city,than Indian women npon the streets of the former one. Yet this circnmstance does not at all conflict with the truth of the statement to which this note is appended.

These views are incidentally exemplified with a fine and un- conscious impartiality in the very structure of the Chinese language,in a manner to which attention has been often directed.An excellent scholar in Chinese,in response to a request from the writer,examined with care a list of one hun- dred and thirty-five of the more common characters which are written with the radical denoting woman,and found that fourteen of them conveyed a meaning which might be classed as good,such as the words“good,""skilful,”and the like; of the remainder,thirty-five are bad,and eighty-six indifferent in meaning. But those classed as bad contain some of the most disreputable words in the whole language.The radical for woman combined with that denoting shield signifies“de- ceitful,fraudulent,villainous,traitorous,selfish”;while three women in combination convey the ideas of"fornication, adultery,seduction,to intrigue.”

There are said to be two reasons why people do not trust one another:first,because they do not know one another, and second,because they do. The Chinese think that they have each of these reasons for mistrust,and they act accord- ingly. While the Chinese are gifted with a capacity for com- bination which at times seems to suggest the union of chemical atoms,it is easy to ascertain by careful inquiry at the proper sources and at the proper times,that the Chinese do not by any means trust one another in the implicit way which the external phenomena might imply. Members of the same family are constantly the victims of mutual suspicion,which is fanned by the women who have married into the family,and who as sisters-in-law are able to do much,and who frequently do what they can,to foment jealousy between their husbands in regard to the division of the proceeds of the common labour.

Not to enlarge upon this aspect of domestic life,which by itself might occupy a chapter,we pass to the notice of the same general state of things among those who are not united by the complex ties of Chinese family life.A company of servants in a family often stand to one another in a relation of what may be called armed neutrality,that is,if they have not been introduced by some one who is responsible for them all. If anything comes out to the disadvantage of any one of them,his first question to himself is not,“How did the master find that out?”but“Who told him of me?” Even if the servant is well aware that his guilt has been proved,his first thought will be to show that some other servant had a grudge against him.We have known a Chinese woman to change colour and leave a room in great dudgeon on hearing loud voices in the yard,because she supposed that as there was an angry discussion,it must be about her,whereas the matter was in relation to a pile of millet stalks bought for fuel, for which a dealer demanded too high a price.

It is this kind of suspicion which fans the fires of dissension that are almost sure to arise when a servant has been unex- pectedly discharged. He suspects every one but himself,is certain that some one has been speaking ill of him,insists upon being told the allegations against him,although he knows that there are half a score of reasons,any of which would justify his immediate dismissal. His“face”must be secured,and his suspicious nature must be gratified.These occurrences take place in Chinese families as well as in foreign families with Chinese servants,but not in the same degree,because a Chinese servant has learned how far he can impose upon the good-nature of the foreigner,as he would never think of doing in the case of a Chinese master. It is for this reason that so many foreigners have in their employ Chinese servants whom they ought to have discharged long ago,and would have dis- charged if they had dared.They know that the mere pro- posal of such a thing will be the stirring up of a hornet's nest, the central figure of which will be the accused and“disgraced” servant,and they have not the courage to make a strike for liberty,lest in the case of failure their condition should be worse than before.

There is a story of an Austrian city which was besieged by the Turks in the middle ages,and which was just on the point of capture.At a critical moment an Austrian girl bethought herself of a number of bee-hives,which she at once brought and tumbled over the wall on the Turks,now almost up to the parapet.The result was a speedy descent on the part of the Turks,and the saving of the city.The tactics of a Chinese often resemble that of the Austrian maiden,and his success is frequently as signal,for this kind of a disturbance is such that, as a Latin professor said of a storm,one would much rather “face it per alium”than“face it per se.”No wonder that the adage runs,"If you employ one,do not suspect him;if you suspect him,do not employ him.”The Chinese way in such cases is simply to close one's eyes and to pretend that one does not see,but for a foreigner this may not be so simple and easy to achieve.

We find it necessary to impress upon our children,when they come to be of an age to mingle in the world on their own account,that it is well not to be too confiding in strangers. This kind of caution does not need to be conveyed to the Chinese in their early years,for it is taken in with their mother's milk.It is a proverb that one man should not enter a temple,and that two men should not look together into a well.And why,we inquire in surprise,should one man not enter a temple court alone?Because the priest may take advantage of the opportunity to make away with him! Two men should not gaze into a well,for if one of them is in debt to the other,or has in his possession something which the other wants,that other may seize the occasion to push his companion into the well!

Another class of examples of are those arising in the ordinary affairs of everyday life.There is a freedom and an absence of constraint in Western lands which in China is conspicuously absent.To us it seems a matter of course that the simplest way to do a thing is for that reason the best.But in China there are different and quite other factors of which account must be taken. While this is true in regard to everything,it is most felt in regard to two matters which form the warp and woof of the lives of most Chinese— money and food. It is very difficult to convince a Chinese that a sum of money,which may have been put into the hands of another to be divided between many persons,has been divided according to the theoretical plan,for he has no experience of any divisions of this sort,and he has had ex- tended experience of divisions in which various deductions in the shape of squeezes were the prominent features.In like manner,it is very hard to make an arrangement by which one Chinese shall have charge of the food provision for others,in which,if close inquiry is made,it shall not appear that those who receive the food suppose that the one who provides it is retaining a certain proportion for his own use. The dissatis- faction in such cases may possibly be wholly suppressed,but there is no reason to think that the suspicion is absent because it does not manifest itself upon the surface. Indeed,it is only a foreigner who would raise the question at all,for the Chinese expect this state of things as surely as they reckon on friction in machinery,and with equal reason.

It is the custom of waiters in Chinese inns,upon leaving the room of a guest who has just paid his bill,to shout out each item of the account,not in order to sound the praises of him who has spent most money—as some travellers have sup- posed—but for the much more practical purpose of letting the other waiters know that the one who thus publicly declares the receipts is not secreting a portion of the gratuity,or“wine- money,"which they invariably expect.

If any matter is to be accomplished which requires con- sultation and adjustment,it will not do in China,as it might in any Western land,to send a mere message to be delivered at the home of the person concerned,to the effect that such and such terms could be arranged.The principal must go himself,and he must see the principal on the other side. If the latter should not be at home,the visit must be repeated until he is found,for otherwise no one would be sure that the matter had not been distorted in its transmission through other media.

Frequent references have been made to the social solidarity of the Chinese.In some cases the whole family or clan all seem to have their fingers in the particular pie belonging to some individual of the family. But into such affairs a person with a different surname is,if he be a wise person,careful not to intrude any of his fingers,lest they be burned.It is indeed a proverb that it is hard to give advice to one whose surname is different from one's own.What does this fellow mean by mixing himself up in my affairs?He must have an object, and it is taken for granted that the object is not a good one. If this is true of those who are life-long neighbours and friends, how much more is it true of those who are mere outsiders,and who have no special relations to the persons addressed.

The character meaning"outside,"has in China a scope and a significance which can only be comprehended by degrees. The same kind of objection which is made to a foreigner be- cause he comes from an“outside”country,is made to a vil- lager because he comes from an“outside”village.This is true with much greater emphasis if the outsider comes from no one knows where,and wants no one knows what."Who knows what drug this fellow has in his gourd?"is the inevita- ble inquiry of the prudent Chinese in regard to a fresh arrival.

If a traveller happens to get astray and arrives at a village after dark,particularly if the hour is late,he will often find that no one will even come out of his house to give a simple direction. Under these circumstances the writer once wan- dered around for several hours,unable to get one of the many Chinese who were offered a reward for acting as a guide even to listen to the proposal.

All scholars in Chinese schools spend their time in shouting out their lessons at the top of their voices,to the great injury of their vocal organs,and to the almost complete distraction of the foreigner.This is"old-time custom,"but if the inquiry for the reason be relentlessly pushed,one is told that without this audible assurance the teacher would suspect that his pupils were not devoting their exclusive attention to their lessons. The singular practice of making each scholar turn his back upon the teacher during the recitation is likewise due to the desire of the teacher to be certain that the pupil is not furtively glancing at the book held in the master's hand!

It is not every form of civilisation which emphasises the duty of entertaining strangers.Many of the proverbs of Sol- omon in regard to caution towards strangers gain a new mean- ing after actual contact with Orientals,but the Chinese have carried their caution to a point which it would be hard to sur- pass.A Chinese teacher employed by a foreigner to pick up children's ballads and sayings heard a little boy singing a non- sense song which was new to the teacher,who asked the little fellow to repeat the words,whereupon the child fled terror stricken and was seen no more.He was a typical product of Chinese environment. If a man has become insane and has strayed away from home,and his friends scour the country- side,hoping to hear something of him,they know very well that the chances of finding traces of him are slight.If he has been at a particular place,but has disappeared,the natural inquiry of his pursuers would be,What did you do with him? This might lead to trouble,so the safest way,and the one sure to be adopted if the inquirer is a stranger,is to assume total ignorance of the whole affair.

The same thing will not seldom happen,as we have learned by experience,when a Chinese stranger tries to find a man who is well known.In a case of this sort,a man whose ap- pearance indicated him to be a native of an adjacent province inquired his way to the village of a man of whom he was in quest.But on his arrival he was disappointed to find that the whole village was unanimous in the affirmation that no such man was known there,and that he had never even been heard of.This wholesale falsehood was not concocted by any de- liberate prevision,for which there was no opportunity,but was simultaneously adopted by a whole villageful of people,with the same unerring instinct which leads the prairie-dog to dive into its hole when some unfamiliar object is sighted.

In all instances of this kind,the slight variations of local dialect afford an infallible test of the general region from which one hails.A countryman who meets others will be ex- amined by them as to his abode and its distance from a great number of other places,as if to make sure that he is not de- ceiving them.In the same manner,scholars are not content with inquiring of a professed literary graduate when he“en- tered,"but he will not improbably be cross-examined upon the theme of his essay,and how he treated it.In this way it is not difficult,and is very common,to expose a fraud.It is hopeless for a man to claim to be a native of a district the pronunciation of which differs by ever so little from his own, for his speech bewrayeth him.Not only will a stranger find it hard to get a clue to the whereabouts of a man,his possible business with whom excites instantaneous and general suspi- cion,but the same thing may be true,as we have also had re- peated occasion to know,in regard to a whole village.The writer once sent several Chinese to look up certain other Chinese who had been for a long time in a foreign hospital under treatment.Very few of them could be found at all. In one case a man who ventured to hold conversation with the strangers gave his surname only,which was that of a large clan,but positively refused to reveal his name,or"style."In another instance,a village of which the messengers were in search persistently retreated before them,like an ignus fatuus, and at last all traces of it disappeared,without its having been found at all! Yet once the strangers were probably within a mile or two of it,and in the case just referred to,the stranger who could not find the man for whom he was looking,proved to have been within ten rods of his dwelling at the time he was baffled.

.The writer is acquainted with an elderly man who has a well-to-do neighbour with whom he was formerly associated in one of the secret sects so common in China.On asking him about this neighbour,whose house was at a little distance from his own,it turned out that the two men,who had grown up together and had passed more than sixty years in proximity, never net.“And why was this?”"Because the other man is getting old and does not go out much.”“Why,then,do you not sometimes go to see him and talk over old times? Are you not on good terms?”The person addressed smiled the smile of conscious superiority,and shook his head."Yes," he said,"we are on good terms enough,but he is well off,and l,n,hehcieed make talk. _

A conspicuous illustration of the instinctive recognition by the Chinese of the existence of their own is found in the reluctance to be left alone in a room. If this should happen,a guest will not improbably exhibit a restless demeanour and will perhaps stroll out into the passage,as much as to say,"Do not suspect me;I did not take your things,as you see;I put them behind me.”The same thing is sometimes observed when a self-respecting Chinese calls upon a foreigner.

Nothing is so certain to excite the most violent suspicion on the part of the Chinese as the death of a person under circum- stances which are in some respects peculiar.A typical ex- ample of this is the death of a married daughter.Although, as already mentioned,the parents are powerless to protect her while she lives,they are in some degree masters ofthe situation when she has died,provided that there is anything to which any suspicion can be made to attach itself.Her suicide is an occasion on which the girl's parents no longer adopt their pro- verbial position of holding down the head,but,on the contrary, hold their head erect,and virtually impose their own terms. The refusal to come to an understanding with the family of the girl under such circumstances would be punished by a long and vexatious lawsuit,the motive for which would be in the first instance revenge,but the main issue of which would eventually be the preservation of the"face”of the girl's family.

There is an ancient saying in China,that when one is walk- ing through an orchard where pears are grown it is well not to adjust one's cap,and when passing through a melon patch it is not the time to lace one's shoes.These sage aphorisms rep- resent a generalised truth.In Chinese social life it is strictly necessary to walk softly,and one cannot be too careful.This is the reason why the Chinese are so constitutionally reticent at times which seem to us so ill-chosen.They know as we cannot that the smallest spark may kindle a fire that shall sweep a thousand acres.

The commercial life of the Chinese illustrates their in a great variety of ways.Neither buyer nor seller trusts the other,and each for that reason thinks that his in- terests are subserved by putting his affairs for the time being out of his own hands into those of a third person who is strictly neutral,because his percentage will only be obtained by the completion of the bargain.No transaction is considered as made at all,until"bargain money"has been paid. If the matter is a more comprehensive one,something must be put into writing,for"talk is empty,while the mark of a pen is final."

The chaotic condition of the silver market in China is due partly to the deep-seated suspicion which cash-shops entertain for their customers,and which customers cherish towards the cash-shops,in each case with the best grounds.Every chopped dollar in south China,every chopped piece of chopped silver in any part of China,is a witness to the suspicious nature of this great and commercial people;keen as they are to effect a trade,they are keener still in their reluctance to do so. The very fact that a customer,whether Chinese or foreign makes no difference,wishes to sell silver after dark is of itself suspi- cious,and it will not be surprising if every shop in the city should successively impart the sage advice to wait till to- morrow.

The banking system of China-appears to be very compre- hensive and intricate,and we know from Marco Polo that bank-bills have been in use from a very ancient period.But they are not by any means universal in their occurrence,and all of them appear to be exceedingly limited in the range of their circulation. The banks of two cities ten miles apart will not receive each other's bills,and for a very good reason.

The high rate of Chinese interest,ranging from twenty-four to thirty-six or more per cent.,is a proof of the lack of mutual confidence. The larger part of this extortionate exaction does not represent payment for the use of money,but insurance on risk,which is very great.The almost total lack of such forms of investments as we are so familiar with in Western lands is due not more to the lack of development of the resources of the Empire,than to the general mistrust of one another among the people."The affairs of life hinge upon confidence,"and it is for this reason that a large class of affairs in China will for a long time to come be dissociated from their hinges,to the great detriment of the interests of the people.

A curious example of Chinese commercial suspicion was afforded a few years ago by a paragraph in the newspapers, giving an account of the condition of things in the Chinese colony in the city of New York.The Chinese organisation probably does not differ from that of other cities where the Chinese have established themselves.They have a Municipal Government of their own,and twelve leading Chinese are the officers thereof.They keep the money and the papers of the Municipality in a huge iron safe,and to insure absolute safety the safe is locked with twelve ponderous brass(Chinese)pad- locks all in a row,instead of the intricate and beautiful com- bination locks used in the New York banks. Each one of the twelve members of the Chinese Board o Aldermen has a key to one of these padlocks,and when the safe is opened all twelve of them must be on hand,each to attend to the un- locking of his own padlock.One of these distinguished alder- men having inopportunely died,the affairs of the Municipality were thrown into the utmost confusion.The key to his pad- lock could not be found,and if it had been found no one would have ventured to take the place of the deceased,through a superstitious fear that the dead man would be jealous of his successor,and would remove him by the same disease of which he himself had died.Even the funeral bills could not be paid until a special election had taken place to fill the vacancy. This little incident is indeed a window through which those who choose to do so may see some of the prominent traits of the Chinese character clearly illustrated—capacity for organisa- tion,commercial ability,mutual suspicion,unlimited credulity, and tacit contempt for the institutions and inventions of the men of the West.

The structure of the Chinese government contains many examples of the effects of lack of confidence. Eunuchs are an essentially Asiatic instance in point,and they are supposed to have existed in China from very ancient times;but during the present dynasty this dangerous class of persons has been dealt with in a very practical way by the Manchus,and de- prived of the power to do the same mischief as in past ages.

Another example of the provision for that suspicion which must inevitably arise when such inharmonious elements as the conquerors and the conquered are to be co-ordinated in high places,is the singular combination of Manchus and Chinese in the administration of the government,as well as the arrange- ment by which the president of one of the Six Boards may be the vice-president of another.By these checks and balances the equilibrium of the state machinery has been preserved. The censorate furnishes another illustration of the same thing, on an extended and important scale.

Those whose knowledge of the interior workings of the Chinese administration entitles their opinions to weight,assure us that the same which we have seen to be characteristic of the social life of the Chinese is equally char- acteristic of their official life. It could not indeed be other- wise.Chinese nature being what-it is,high officials cannot but be jealous of those below them,for it is from that quarter that their rivals are to be dreaded.The lower officials,on the other hand,are not less suspicious of those above them,for it is from that quarter that their removal may be at any moment effected. There seems the best reason to believe that both the higher and the lower officials alike are more or less jealous of the large and powerful literary class,and the officials are uniformly suspicious of the people.This last state of mind is well warranted by what is known of the multitudinous semi- political sects,with which the whole Empire is honeycombed. A District Magistrate will pounce down upon the annual gath- ering of a temperance society such as the well-known Tsai-li, which merely forbids opium,wine,and tobacco,and turn over their anticipated feast to the voracious“wolves and tigers” of his yamen,not because it is proved that the designs of the Tsai-li Society are treasonable,but because it has been offi- cially assumed long since that they must be so.All secret societies are treasonable,and this among the rest. This generalised suspicion settles the whole question,and whenever occasion arises the government interposes,seizes the leaders, banishes or exterminates them,and thus for the moment allays its suspicions.

It is obvious that so powerful a principle as the one which we are considering must be a strong reinforcement of that innate conservatism which has been already discussed,to pre- vent the adoption of what is new.The census which is occa- sionally called for by the government does not occur with sufficient frequency to make it familiar to the Chinese,even in name. It always excites an immediate suspicion that some ulterior end is in view.How real this suspicion is,is illus- trated by an incident which occurred in a village next to the one in which the writer lived.One of two brothers,hearing that a new census had been ordered,took it for granted that it signified compulsory emigration.It is customary in such cases to leave one brother at home to look after the graves of the ancestors,but the younger of the two,foreseeing that he must go,promptly proceeded to save himself from the fatigues of a long journey by committing suicide,thus check- mating the government.

It is a mixture of suspicion and of conservatism which has made the path of the young Chinese who were educated in the United States such a bed of thorns from the time of their return to the present day;it is the same fell combination which shows itself in opposition to the inevitable introduction of railways into China.Suspicion of the motives of the gov- ernment will long prevent the reforms which China needs. More than thirty years ago,when the importance of the issue of small silver coinage was pointed out to a distinguished statesman in Peking,he replied—with great truth—that it would never do to attempt to change the currency of the Empire."Were it to be tried,the people would immediately suppose that the government gained some advantage by it, and it would not work."

Great obstacles are invariably thrown in the way of the opening of mines,which,if properly worked,might make China what she ought to be,a rich country.The“earth dragon"below ground,and peculation and suspicion above it,are as yet too much for anything more than the most rudi- mentary steps of progress in this most essential direction.No matter how great advantages may be or how obvious,it is almost impossible to get new things introduced when an all- pervading suspicion frowns upon them.The late Dr.Nevius, who did so much at Chefoo for the cultivation of a high grade of foreign fruits in China,fruits which visibly yield an enormous profit,was obliged to contend against this suspicion at every step,and one less patient and less philanthropic would have abandoned the project in disgust.When profits are once assured this state of things of course gradually dis- appears.But it is very real when inquiries are set on foot like those by the Imperial Maritime Customs in regard to the raising of silk-worms or tea. How can those who are inter- ested in these matters possibly believe,in defiance of all the accumulated experience of past ages,that the object of these inquiries is not a tax,but the promotion of production and the increase of the profits of skilled labour?Who ever heard of such a thing,and who can believe it when he does hear it?The attitude of the Chinese mind towards such projects as this may be expressed in the old Dutch proverb,“Good-morrow to you all,as the fox said when he leaped into the goose-pen!”

It remains to speak of the special relations of this topic to foreigners.The profound suspicion with which foreigners are regarded is often accompanied by,and perhaps largely due to,a belief,deep-rooted and ineradicable,that foreigners are able to do the most impossible things with the greatest ease. If a foreigner walks out in a place where he has not been often seen,it is inferred that he is inspecting thefêng-shui of the district.If he surveys a river,he is determining the exist- ence of precious metals. He is supposed to be able to see some distance into the earth,and to have his eyes on what- ever is best worth taking away.If he engages in famine re- lief,it is not thought too much to suppose that the ultimate object must be to carry off a large part of the population of the district,to be disposed of in foreign lands.It is by reason of these opinions on feng-shui that the presence of foreigners on the walls of Chinese cities has so often led to disturbances, and that the height of foreign buildings in China must be as carefully regulated as the location of a frontier of the Empire. The belief in the uniformity of nature appears to be totally lacking in China. Mr.Baber mentions a saying in Szechuan of a certain hill,that opium grows without,and coal within. But this is not simply a notion of the ignorant,for Professor Pumpelly declares that one of the high officials in Peking told him the same thing,and used the statement as an argument against the too rapid removal of coal deposits,the rate of the growth of which is unknown.It is said that the late states- man Wen Hsiang,having read Dr.Martin's“Evidences of Christianity,"was asked what he thought of it,to which he replied that the scientific part of the work he was prepared to accept,but the religious sections,in which the affirmation is made that the earth revolves around the sun,were more than he could believe!

The whole subject of the entrance of foreigners into China is beyond the Chinese intellect in its present state of develop- ment. Seeing Baron von Richthofen ride over the country in what appeared to the people of Szechuan a vague and purposeless manner,they imagined him to be a fugitive from some disastrous battle. Many a Chinese,who has afterwards come to understand the foreign barbarian all too well,has at first sight of his form,especially if he chanced to be tall,been seized with secret terror.Many Chinese women are persuaded that if they once voluntarily enter a foreigner's dwelling the fatal spell willwork,and they will be bewitched;if they are at last prevailed upon to enter,they will not on any account step on the threshold,nor look into a mirror when it may be offered to their sight,for thus they would betray away their safety.

A few years ago a young Chinese scholar from an inte- rior province,where foreigners were practically unknown,was engaged with some difficulty to come to the premises of the writer to assist a new-comer in acquiring the language.He remained a few weeks,when he recollected that his mother was very much in need of his filial care,and left,promising to return at a fixed date,but was seen no more. During all the time that he was on the foreigner's premises,this astute Con- fucianist never once took a sip of tea,which was brought to him regularly by the servants,nor ate a meal on the place,lest he should imbibe besotment. When a foreign envelope was handed to him by another teacher,that he might enclose the letter which he had written to his mother assuring her that thus far he was safe,and when it was shown him how this same envelope was self-sealing,a little moisture being applied by the tongue,his presence of mind did not for an instant forsake him,and he blandly requested the other teacher to do the sealing,as he was not expert at it.

It is this frame of mind which leads to the persistent notions in regard to Chinese books printed by foreigners.There is a widespread conviction that they are drugged,and the smell of printer's ink is frequently identified as that of the"bewildering drug”which is embodied in their composition.Sometimes one hears that it is only necessary to read one of these books, and forthwith he is a slave to foreigners.A slightly different point of view was that taken by a lad of whom we have heard, who,having read a little way in one of these tracts,threw it down in terror and ran home,telling his friends that if one should read that book and tell a lie,he would inevitably go to hell!Sometimes colporteurs have found it impossible to give away these books,not,as might be supposed,because of any hostility to the contents,of which nothing was known and for which nothing was cared,but because it was feared that the gift would be made the basis on which to levy a kind of blackmail,in a manner with which the Chinese are only too familiar.

The same presupposition leads to a panic if a foreigner injudiciously attempts to take down the names of Chinese children,a simple process which has been known to be emi- nently successful in breaking up a prospective school.The system of romanising Chinese characters must in its initial stages meet this objection and suspicion.Why should a for- eigner wish to teach his pupils to write in such a way that their friends at home cannot read what they say?All the explanations in the world will not suffice to make this clear to a suspicious old Chinese who knows that what has been good enough for the generations that have come before his children is good enough for them,and much better than the invention of some foreigner of unknown antecedents.It may almost be said that a general objection is entertained to anything which a foreigner proposes,and often for the apparent reason that he proposes it.The trait of“flexible inflexibility"leads your Chinese friend to assure you in the blandest but most unmistakable terms,that your proposal is very admirable and very preposterous.

Sarcasm is a weapon which,in the hands of a foreigner,is not at all to the taste of the Chinese.A foreigner whose knowledge of Chinese was by no means equal to the demands which he wished to make upon it,in a fit of deep disgust at some sin of omission or commission on the part of one of his servants,called him in English a"humbug.""Deep rankles in his side the fatal dart,"and at the earliest opportunity the servant begged of a lady whose Chinese was fully equal to the tax upon it,to be told what the dreadful word meant which had been thus applied to him.The mandarins who seized upon the blocks of Mr.Thom's translation of“Esop's Fables” were in the same frame of mind as the Peking servant.These officials could not help perceiving in the talking geese,tigers, foxes,and lions some recondite meaning which could be best nipped in the bud by suppressing the entire edition.

Some of the most persistent instances of Chinese suspicion towards foreigners are manifested in connection with the many hospitals and dispensaries now scattered over so large a pait of China.Amid the vast number of patients there are many who exhibit an implicit faith and a touching confidence in the good-will and the skill of the foreign physician. But there are many others,of whose feelings we know much less,except as the result of careful inquiry,who continue to believe the most irrational rumours in regard to the extraction of eyes and hearts for medicine,the irresistible propensity of the surgeon to reduce his patients to mince-meat,and the fearful disposi- tion said to be made of Chinese children in the depths of for- eign cellars.A year or two of experience of the widespread benefits of such an institution might be expected to dissipate such idle rumours as the wind disperses a mist;but they con- tinue to flourish side by side with tens of thousands of success- ful treatments,as mould thrives in warm damp spots during the month of August.

The whole history of foreign intercourse with China is a history of suspicion and prevarication on the part of the Chi- nese,while it doubtless has not been free from grave faults on the side of foreigners.It is a weary history to retrace,and its lessons may be relegated to those who are charged with the often thankless task of conducting such negotiations. But as it often happens that private persons are obliged to be their own diplomats in China,it is well to know how it should be done.We will give a sample case which is an excellent illustration. The question was about the renting of some premises in an interior city,to which a local official on various grounds took exception. The foreigner presented himself at the interview which had been arranged,clad in the Chinese dress,and armed with the necessary materials for writing. After the preliminary conversation the foreigner slowly opened his writing materials,adjusted his paper,shook out his pen, examined his ink,with an air of intense preoccupation.The Chinese official was watching this performance with the keenest interest and the liveliest curiosity.“What are you doing?” he inquired. The foreigner explained that he was simply getting his writing materials in order—“only that and nothing more.”"Writing materials! What for?”“To take down your answers,"was the reply.The official hastened to assure his foreign guest that this extremity would by no means be called for, as the premises could be secured !How could this magistrate be sure where he should next hear of this mysteri- ous document,the contents of which he could not possibly know?

China is a country which abounds in wild rumours,often of a character to fil the heart with dread. Within the past few years such a state of things has been reported among the Chinese in Singapore that coolies positively refused to travel a certain street after dark,on account of the imminent danger of having their heads suddenly and mysteriously cut off.The Empire is probably never free from such epochs of horror;to those concerned the terrors are as real as those of the French Revolution to the Parisians of I789.Infinite credulity and are the elements of the soil in which these fearful rumours thrive,and on which they fatten. When they have to do with foreigners,long and painful experience has shown that they must not be despised,but must be taken in the early stages of their development. None of them could do serious harm if the local officials were only sincerely inter- ested to stamp them out.In their ultimate outcome,when they have been suffered to grow unchecked,these rumours result in such atrocities as the Tientsin massacre.All parts of China are well adapted to their rapid development,and there is scarcely a province where they have not in some form oc- curred. For the complete removal of these outbreaks,the time element is as necessary as for the results of geologic epochs.The best way to prevent their occurrence is to con- vince the Chinese,by irrefragable object-lessons,that foreign- ers are the sincere well-wishers of the Chinese.This simple proposition once firmly established,then for the first time will it be true that“within the four seas,all are brethren.”