康熙身边的洋顾问

加拿大安大略省笔译口译协会（atio）认证翻译、加拿大认证esl老师、留学申请顾问。

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加拿大英文教练（原温哥华英文教练），致力于地道英文表达

耶稣会（Society of Jesus）是天主教修会之一，由西班牙贵族依纳爵·罗耀拉于1534年在巴黎创立，1540年获教皇保罗三世正式批准。其主要特点包括--军事化组织、注重教育与学术、灵活传教策略等。从1552（明朝）年开始，耶稣会就尝试在中国传教，通过利玛窦等人的努力，如参与绘制《坤舆万国全图》，参与修订《崇祯历书》（汤若望），为清朝铸造火炮（南怀仁），终于在康熙朝站稳了脚跟。

康熙本人对知识有强烈好奇心，他跟随耶稣会士南怀仁（Ferdinand Verbiest）、徐日升（Tomé Pereira）、张诚（Jean-François Gerbillon）、白晋（Joachim Bouvet）、汤若望（Adam Schall von Bell）系统学习了数学、天文学、医学、地理学、音乐甚至哲学。他极度重视西方历法和火炮技术，深知西方天文学的精确性对王朝统治的合法性至关重要。在平定三藩之乱和准噶尔叛乱时，西洋火炮就发挥了关键作用。他还让传教士进行全国地图测绘，绘制了当时世界领先的《皇舆全览图》。南怀仁、张诚等耶稣会士不仅学识渊博，而且忠诚地为皇帝服务，甚至在外交谈判（如《尼布楚条约》）中担任译员和顾问。

利玛窦等人之所以能在明朝立足，就是两个字“灵活”。他们采取了一种“文化适应”策略，比如尊重中国文化，允许中国教徒祭祖、祭孔，将这些行为解释为世俗的、非宗教的孝道和敬意的表现，而非偶像崇拜；又比如他们用儒家经典中的“上帝”、“天”来翻译天主教的“God”，力求在教义上找到共通点，这些所谓“利玛窦规矩“（Ricci's Chinese Rites）成为康熙允许其活动的基础。康熙认为，只要传教士遵守“利玛窦规矩”，安分守己，传播一些有用的知识，那么他们就是无害的，甚至是有益的。

明清两季，在中国传教的，不止耶稣会，还有道明会（Dominicans）、方济各会（Franciscans），他们对于耶稣会的成功是心怀妒忌的，强烈反对“利玛窦规矩”，并不断向罗马教廷申诉。最终，教皇克雷芒十一世于1704年和1715年两次颁布法令，明确禁止中国教徒进行祭祖、祭孔仪式，并否定了“上帝”、“天”的译名。这场天主教内部的矛盾终于溢出，激怒了康熙，变成了“礼仪之争“。康熙认为，祭祖祭孔是中国的核心礼俗，教皇作为一个“外人”，无权对中国内部事务指手画脚。他认为是耶稣会士最初同意了“利玛窦规矩”，现在教廷出尔反尔，他视此为对其君主权威的公开挑战。康熙采取了逐步强硬的措施，1706年下令，所有在华传教士必须向朝廷宣誓，遵守“利玛窦规矩”，并领取“印票”（居留许可证）方可传教，拒绝者一律驱逐出境。康熙还多次接见教廷特使，试图说明中国礼仪的世俗性质，但对方态度强硬。1720年，教皇第二次派特使来华重申禁令，康熙在奏折上朱批：“以后不必西洋人在中国行教，禁止可也，免得多事。”这标志着官方政策的彻底转向。

如果说康熙对于传教的态度还是逐渐强硬的话，那么到了雍乾时代，大清面对的就是一个已经被定性为“不驯服且具有潜在颠覆性”的宗教团体，他们从王朝安全和社会稳定的角度出发，自然采取了比康熙晚年更为严厉和彻底的禁教政策。天主教强调"上帝高于一切"，要求信徒绝对服从教皇，这与清朝"朕即天下"的皇权观念产生根本对立。雍正曾直言："信徒只知听从教皇，岂非视朕为外人？“同时，清朝以儒家思想为统治根基，而天主教教义与理学纲常存在矛盾。雍正指出："若天下人皆从西洋之教，则纲常伦理何以存续？"。另外，耶稣会士参与清朝舆图测绘、火炮制造等机密事务，引发统治者对情报泄露的警惕。清廷自视为"天朝上国"，将西洋学说视为"异端小技"，虽然欣赏耶稣会士的历算、绘画才能，但始终坚持"西学中源"论。

如果仅仅是上述文化、传统方面的原因，清廷的反应还不至于如此大动干戈，关键是欧洲殖民势力彼时在亚洲的扩张（如葡萄牙占澳门、西班牙侵菲律宾）令清廷警觉。乾隆时期马戛尔尼使团来华后，清廷对西方渗透的戒心进一步加强。

内外的呼应也让清廷寝食难安，比如国内的教徒拒绝参与地方祭祀活动，造成与传统社群的对立。乾隆年间多次出现教民与乡绅的激烈冲突。又如秘密教会（如白莲教）活动使清廷对任何非官方组织都高度敏感。宗室苏努家族皈依天主教，涉及皇权斗争，加速禁教政策出台（雍正朝苏努案）；教士私下绘制中国地图被告发，引发全国性清查（乾隆朝德天赐案）。

这些因素叠加在一起，让雍正在1724年将天主教定为"邪教"，乾隆则通过《大清律例》进一步法制化。反过来，罗马教廷的反制措施也火上浇油，1742年本笃十四世颁布《自上主圣意》，彻底禁止中国礼仪，又促使乾隆采取更强硬措施。

与此同时，耶稣会在欧洲也遭受重大打击。葡萄牙首相庞巴尔侯爵将1755年里斯本大地震归咎于耶稣会，并指责耶稣会在南美洲殖民地（特别是巴拉圭）的传教区形成了“国中之国”，损害了王室利益。随后，法国、西班牙也加入到打击耶稣会的行列中来，在各国君主的巨大压力下，教会被迫牺牲耶稣会以自保。教皇克雷芒十四世于1773年颁布教皇通谕《主的牧羊人》，正式解散耶稣会。耶稣会成为非法组织，其成员被囚禁、被迫还俗或流亡。只有在非天主教的俄罗斯和普鲁士，由于叶卡捷琳娜大帝和腓特烈二世拒绝公布教皇命令，耶稣会得以幸存并继续活动。拿破仑倒台后，教皇庇护七世为重振天主教会，1814年正式恢复了耶稣会。至今，耶稣会仍是世界上规模最大、影响力最广的男性修会之一。

上面的背景知识有了之后，我们来读一段我从China Trade Porcelain一书中节选的内容。括号中的洋人名是这些耶稣会修士的中文名，起中文名也是其文化适应策略的一部分。

The Jesuit Missions at the height of their power

Louis XIV, the most powerful King, in Europe, encouraged and protected the missions, realizing that the Jesuits were men of high intelligence and outstanding culture who could do far more for the glory of France than any number of armies. One of them, a Belgian called Father Verbiest（南怀仁）, was given the position of President of the Tribunal of Observatories of the Imperial Heavens. He was commanded by K'ang Hsi （康熙）to make cannons of various sizes for the defence of Peking, and received protection in exchange far stronger than that conferred by the new religion. The number of converts at that time was about 300,000. Another Jesuit, Adam Schall von Bell（汤若望）, reformed the calendar … K'ang Hsi himself was a great litterateur, and treated the missionaries as honoured guests. Gerbillon （张诚）became his Professor of Mathematics, while Bouvet introduced him to Western philosophy. Some of the fathers were entrusted with diplomatic missions, even to negotiating advantageous treaties with the Tsar, Peter the Great. This was the moment of the Jesuits' greatest influence in China. K'ang Hsi issued a decree in I692 giving them permission to preach the gospel all over China, for, although he would not abandon Confucius, he could afford to look favourably on a cult whose ministers were so useful.

Jesuit Influence on the Arts

The Jesuits hadsomeinfluenceonthearts, andpainters such as Gherardini （瞿良士）and Belleville lived at Peking in the Imperial Palace where they painted portraits and decorations, in spite of the wide aesthetic gulf between thetwocivilisations. The Chinese had been astounded by the first pictures and prints from Europe. “Can it be true that Europeans have one side of the face black?” was thereaction tochiaroscuro. Perspective was also condemned. In China painting was like "poetry without words” and even Ricci（利玛窦）, who was fascinated by porcelain, hadnothingbutscornfortheirmetaphysical representationof nature. One ofthemostextraordinary men among this company of Jesuits was Father Castiglione（郎世宁）, who founded a school of painting in theclassic Chinese manner, working in conjunction withthe studios of Ching-te Chen. He was helped by the painter, Jean-Denis Attiret（王志诚）, and together they contributed much to the development of European subjects.It was he who drew the plans of the Yuan Ming Yuän(Old Summer Palace)for Ch'ien Lung（乾隆）. It was to be a Chinese Versailles, 25 kilometres from Peking. Father Benoist （蒋友仁）builtthehydraulicworks, andthefamousmachine of Val Saint Pierre worked the fountains which so astonished the Imperial Court. Father Amiot（钱德明） made a fine clock especially for the Emperor, and Brother Thibault（张诚） fascinated the Court with his clockwork birds and animals.

Suppression of the Jesuits

The enviable position of the Jesuits at Court could hardly fail to rouse the envy of other religious orders. Ricci and his neophytes had always shown tolerance towards Chinese traditions, especially towards their rites and ancestor-worship. This was enough for the Franciscans （方济各会）and Dominicans（道明会） to accuse the Jesuits of idolatry. There were immediate repercussions and the mendicant friars were driven from Peking. They took their grievance to Rome, where the argument grew to immense proportions. Thoroughly misinformed, Pope Clement IX sided with the friars, disowning the Jesuit missionaries in I7I0.K'ang Hsi responded by banishing the religious orders from China altogether, and towards the end of his reign Christianity was forbidden by decree. Some missionaries remained at the Court, longer in positions of confidence, but as painters, architects, clock-makers, and machine-minders. During the reigns of Yung Cheng(雍正) and Ch'ien Lung the persecution increased, churches were closed and the monks killed or thrown into prison, except for some of the Jesuit fathers living in Peking. The order suppressing the Jesuits, signed by Pope Clement XIV under pressure from France, Spain and Portugal was made on 21st July 1773, and was a disaster for the Church in China and for Christianity itself. No other foreign mission ever attained the privileged position of the early Fathers, or was ever allowed to approach the emperor.

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